Accounting of financial results in banks is very important to show their financial status and activity correctly. Financial accounting in banks involves measuring, recording and reporting financial transactions, assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses. These reports provide stakeholders, including regulators, investors and management, with important insights into the financial health of the bank. The complexity of banking operations, along with regulatory requirements, makes it mandatory for banks to adhere to international accounting standards that ensure transparency, comparability and consistency across the industry.

This study delves into the dynamics of commodity futures and spot exchanges, offering a comprehensive analysis of their interactions and market behaviors. Commodity futures and spot markets represent two fundamental components of the commodities trading ecosystem, each with distinct characteristics and roles. The research explores the key differences and connections between these markets, examining how futures contracts, which are agreements to buy or sell a commodity at a future date, interact with spot markets where commodities are traded for immediate delivery.

Through a combination of quantitative analysis and theoretical exploration, the study investigates the impact of futures trading on spot prices and vice versa. It evaluates how factors such as market liquidity, price volatility, and supply-demand imbalances influence both futures and spot prices. Additionally, the research examines the role of hedging, speculation, and arbitrage in shaping market dynamics and price movements.

Case studies and empirical data are utilized to illustrate real-world scenarios and trading strategies, highlighting the practical implications for investors, traders, and market participants. The findings provide insights into the complex relationships between futures and spot exchanges, offering valuable guidance for optimizing trading strategies and managing risk. By enhancing the understanding of how these markets interact and influence each other, the study contributes to a deeper grasp of commodity trading dynamics, aiding stakeholders in making more informed decisions and developing effective trading and investment strategies.

This article describes the economic importance and necessity of public debt in developing the national economy. The scientific approaches of economists to the effective management of state internal and debt have been researched and conclusions have been drawn. In recent years, the trends of changes in public debt in the Republic of Uzbekistan have been analyzed. Findings on the implementation of the public debt management strategy and its main directions are based. A scientific proposal and practical recommendations on improving the mechanism of efficient management and distribution of state debts have been developed.

In recent years, there has been a significant increase in public debt in many countries, which calls into question the sustainability of traditional financial systems. In this context, cryptocurrencies, especially bitcoin, are beginning to play an increasingly important role in the economy. This article explores the relationship between government debt and cryptocurrencies, focusing on how bitcoin can change the rules of the game in the financial world.

We consider the mechanisms by which bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies can serve as an alternative to traditional financial instruments, as well as their potential as a means of protection against inflation and devaluation. In addition, the risks and benefits of investing in cryptocurrencies are analyzed against the background of growing government debt.

The article also discusses the impact of regulation and government control on the development of the crypto market and its interaction with public finances. In conclusion, we hypothesize about the future role of bitcoin in the global economy and its ability to change the approach to public debt management.

This study explores methodologies for estimating capital costs in markets characterized by inefficiencies. In such markets, traditional valuation models and cost estimation techniques may fall short due to factors like market volatility, information asymmetry, and limited liquidity. The research provides a comprehensive analysis of various approaches to accurately assess capital costs despite these challenges. Key methodologies examined include adjusted discount rates, scenario analysis, and risk-adjusted cost estimation techniques. The study also evaluates the impact of market inefficiencies on cost estimation accuracy and presents case studies illustrating practical applications of these methodologies. By integrating theoretical insights with empirical examples, the research aims to offer a robust framework for estimating capital costs in inefficient markets, providing valuable guidance for investors, financial analysts, and project managers. The findings emphasize the importance of adapting conventional methods to account for market imperfections, ultimately improving the reliability of capital cost assessments in challenging environments.