Pharmacogenomics explores the interplay between genetic variation and drug response, offering transformative opportunities for personalized medicine (Wang et al., 2020; Smith & Lee, 2021). Genetic polymorphisms in drug-metabolizing enzymes, transporters, and receptors significantly impact pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and adverse event profiles. Traditional “one-size-fits-all” drug regimens fail to account for inter-individual variability, leading to therapeutic inefficacy or toxicity. Recent advances in pharmacogenomic profiling, combined with next-generation sequencing and bioinformatic analytics, enable precise drug selection, dosage optimization, and risk mitigation. Integration with nanocarrier-based delivery systems enhances targeted delivery to specific tissues while minimizing systemic exposure. Preclinical evaluation using organ-on-chip models, 3D hepatic and renal organoids, and humanized animal models provides translationally relevant data. This article reviews current advancements in pharmacogenomics, emphasizing mechanisms of genetic influence on drug response, personalized dosing strategies, novel delivery approaches, and translational models. Challenges, including ethical considerations, data privacy, and regulatory hurdles, are discussed, alongside future directions in AI-driven pharmacogenomic prediction, adaptive therapy, and combinatorial precision therapeutics. The synthesis highlights the potential for genetically-informed, patient-specific pharmacology to enhance therapeutic efficacy, reduce adverse events, and optimize clinical outcomes.

Pharmacogenomics, Personalized medicine, Precision therapeutics, Genetic polymorphisms, Nanocarrier drug delivery, Bioengineered preclinical models, Clinical pharmacology

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